Selasa, 29 November 2011

Ekspedisi Marco Polo

Marco Polo adalah seorang pedagang dan penjelajah asal Venesia Italia yang memberi inspirasi orang-orang Eropa untuk melakukan ekspedisi menemukan daerah-daerah baru di luar Eropa. Berkat catatan perjalanannya yang ditulis dalam buku Il Milione, terbukalah rute dagang antara Eropa ke Asia yang sebelumnya dianggap berbahaya dan belum terpetakan.

Berkat Marco Polo, kerajaan-kerajaan di Eropa mendapat informasi detil dan berharga mengenai Asia. Salah satu pencapaian Marco Polo adalah ketika dia berhasil diterima dengan baik oleh Kubilai Khan. Marco Polo muda dan ayahnya sering di undang ke istana, bahkan Ayahnya di beri jabatan penting sehingga mereka tinggal di negara itu selama beberapa tahun. Marco Polo mempelajari bahasa Cina, dan dalam waktu singkat ia sudah fasih bahasa Cina. Selain perjalanan ke Cina, Marco Polo tercatat pernah melakukan ekspedisi hingga ke wilayah India. Ekspedisi tersebut dituangkan Marco Polo dalam buku“The Travels” yang berisi kumpulan catatan perjalanannya ke Asia. Buku ini merupakan kompilasi jurnal-jurnal Marco Polo.

Ekspedisi ke Cina di mulai tanggal 24 April tahun 1271. Ia, beserta ayah dan pamannya, diutus Paus Gregory X melakukan perjalanan ke Cina. Paus juga mengutus dua biarawan untuk ikut serta dalam ekspedisi Marcopolo itu, namun dalam perjalanan, kedua biarawan itu mengundurkan diri. Pada awal tahun 1272, mereka melewati Turki dan Tabriz (Iran utara), kemudian melewati padang pasir untuk mencapai Hormuz di Teluk Persia. Mereka kemudian melewati Khurasan dan tinggal setahun di Badakhshan, Afganistan. Selama periode ini, Marcopolo mengunjungi bagian lainnya di Afghanistan, Pakistan, dan kemungkinan Kashmir. Setelah meninggalkan Badakhshan, keluarga Marco Polo melanjutkan perjalanan ke Cina. Pada tahun 1274, Marcopolo tiba di kerajaan Mongol dan menyerahkan minyak suci dari Yerusalem serta surat dari Paus kepada Kubilai Khan. Perjalanan Marcopolo ke Cina secara keseluruhan memakan waktu dua puluh tahun.Perjalanan Marco polo ke Cina menyusuri Jalur Sutera dan kembali ke Venesia melalui Indonesia, Sri Lanka, dan India. Semua tempat yang ia kunjungi berikut masyarakat dan budayanya diabadikan oleh Marco Polo.

Setelah beberapa tahun tinggal di Cina, Marco Polo meninggalkan Cina mengawal Putri Kubulai Khan yang akan dinikahkan dengan Raja Persia dilengkapi 14 armada kapal membawa barang-barang untuk pesta pernikahan ke Persia. Armada utusan Kubulai berlayar ke selatan menyusuri Laut Cina selatan dan saat itu di anggap perjalanan paling berbahaya. Rombongan Marco polo kemudian singgah di Kalimantan dan Sumatera.

Salah satu kisah Marco Polo yang menarik tentang Indonesia adalah cerita tentang unicorn atau kuda bertanduk satu yang dijumpainya di pulau Sumatra yang kemudian dikenal sebagai badak Sumatera. Tempat-tempat di Indonesia yang tertulis dalam catatan Marco polo antara lain Pulau Jawa, penyerangan Kubilai khan ke kerajaan Singasari, Pulau Pentam (pulau Bintan), Kota Malaiur/Melayu/Palembang, Kerajaan Ferlec (Perlak), suku Batak, Kerajaan Samudera pasai dan Barus.
Selain Indonesia, Marco polo juga singgah di Ceylon dan beberapa tempat lainnya hingga kapal-kapal memasuki Teluk Persia dan sang putri selamat mendarat. Setelah mereka sampai ke ibukota Persia, mereka di sambut dengan meriah dan tinggal beberapa minggu di Persia. Setelah itu, Marco polo kemudian pulang ke Venesia melalui laut tengah. Saat tiba di Venesia, terjadi pertentangan antara Venesia dengan Genoa sehingga Marcopolo ikut terlibat dalam peperangan sampai akhirnya tertangkap dan di jebloskan di Penjara. Selama setahun ia dikurung di penjara Genoa. Salah satu rekan sesama tahanan adalah penulis terampil dan Marco Polo mendiktekan kepadanya laporan tentang pengalamannya di Cina, Jepang, dan negara-negara Timur lainnya. Laporan ini di tulis dengan sangat hati-hati, dan salinan naskah tersebut masih ada hingga sekarang, salah satunya disimpan di perpustakaan di Paris. Naskah itu dibawa ke Perancis pada tahun 1307. Salinan lainnya juga tersimpan di kota Berne. Buku itu diterjemahkan ke banyak bahasa, sehingga sebagian besar orang-orang belajar dari petualangan Marco Polo. Sekitar 175 tahun setelah buku itu ditulis, Christopher Columbus, merencanakan perjalanan di seberang Atlantik. Berdasarkan keyakinannya setelah membaca deskripsi oleh Marco Polo tentang Jawa, Sumatera dan East India Kepulauan. Ketika ia singgah di Haiti dan Kuba, Colombus mengira kepulauan tersebut adalah East India (Indonesia). Jadi Marco Polo dapat di katakan tokoh yang menginspirasi penemuan Amerika.

Minggu, 27 November 2011

Softwere analisis butir soal ANATES

Salah satu masalah dalam sistem evaluasi di sekolah adalah teknik analisis yang dirasakan belum berjalan maksimal. Analisis hasil evaluasi diperlukan untuk mengukur ketercapaian suatu kompetensi dasar berdasarkan KKM yang ditetapkan sehingga tindak lanjut hasil evaluasi baik berupa program remedial ataupun pengayaan dapat dilakukan. 


Untuk itu diperlukan sistem analisis evaluasi yang dapat dioperasikan dengan mudah dan cepat. Salah satu sistem analisis evaluasi yaitu melalui program anates yang sudah cukup lama populer. Program ini cukup fleksibel, mudah pengoperasiannya dan cukup ringan di aplikasikan dalam semua jenis komputer. Namun terdapat satu kekurangan yaitu entri data nama-nama siswa tidak bisa di copy paste dari program excel atau word sehingga tetap harus dilakukan secara manual. Bagi teman-teman yang ingin mencoba softwere ANATES dapat di peroleh dari link download di bawah ini:

1. ANATES Soal Pilihan Ganda                      DOWNLOAD
2. ANATES Soal Uraian                                  DOWNLOAD

Jumat, 25 November 2011

Media Pembelajaran Sosiologi

Sebagai salah satu cabang ilmu pengetahuan sosial, kajian sosiologi menjadi bagian penting dalam kurikulum di sekolah mulai dari jenjang pendidikan dasar hingga pendidikan tinggi. Untuk jenjang pendidikan dasar, kajian sosiologi dilaksanakan secara terpadu bersama disiplin ilmu ekonomi, sejarah dan geografi sehingga ruang lingkup kompetensi dasar untuk pendidikan dasar meliputi empat bidang yaitu (1) Manusia, Tempat, dan Lingkungan (2) Waktu, Keberlanjutan, dan Perubahan (3) Sistem Sosial dan Budaya dan (4) Perilaku Ekonomi dan Kesejahteraan.

Dalam praktik pembelajaran di kelas, pengetahuan sebaiknya dibangun dan dikontruksi oleh siswa melalui proses belajar yang di rancang oleh guru menggunakan sumber-sumber belajar yang bervariasi. Belajar sosiologi akan lebih bermakna jika apa yang dipelajari sesuai dengan konteks kehidupan siswa. Dampaknya diperlukan berbagai bentuk media belajar yang menyajikan fenomena sosiologis yang terjadi dilingkungan siswa untuk di hadirkan di ruang kelas. Dalam posting edisi kali ini saya menyediakan berbagai media berupa video durasi pendek mengenai fenomena sosial yang relevan dengan kompetensi dasar bagi siswa SD dan SMP. Bagi teman-teman guru, orang tua atau praktisi pendidikan serta siapapun yang membutuhkan bisa di download secara gratis.


Materi Pembelajaran
Judul Media
Jenis Media
Link Download
Penyimpangan social




Perubahan Sosial

Upaya pencegahan penyimpangan social

Kriminalitas

Tawuran

Faktor penyebab perubahan sosial(Bencana alam)
Faktor penyebab perubahan sosial(Konflik di masyarakat)

Kemiskinan

Video

Video

Video

Video

Video


Video



Kamis, 24 November 2011

Penjelajahan Samudera

Setelah Konstantinopel direbut Kerajaan Turki Ustmani dari tangan Romawi tahun terjadi perubahan besar pada peta perdagangan di Eropa. Bangsa Eropa berjuang mencari jalan ke Timur mencari tempat asal rempah-rempah. Sehingga terjadinya perubahan jalur perdagangan dari Barat ke Timur. Keinginan untuk melakukan pelayaran mencari asal rempah-rempah itu juga didorong oleh adanya penemuan dan kemajuan di bidang ilmu pengetahuan dan teknologi. Kemajuan Ilmu Pengetahuan dan Teknologi pelayaran berkembang setelah Nicholas Copernicus mengemukakan teori heliosentris. Selain teori Copernicus, kisah perjalanan Marcopolo juga mendorong kegiatan pelayaran bagi para pedagang dari Eropa. Marcopolo telah melakukan perjalanan menuju Cina (1271-1272). Perjalanan Marcopolo itu telah ditulis dalam buku yang berjudul Imago Mundi (keajaiban dunia). Buku tersebut tersebar di kalangan para pelaut dan saudagar Eropa.

Teknologi pelayaran seperti peta, teropong bintang dan kompas juga telah ditemukan. Alat-alat itu tentu sangat membantu dalam pelayaran. Dengan beberapa faktor tersebut, bangsa Eropa mulai melakukan pelayaran dan penjelajahan samudera. Perintis penjelajahan samudera adalah orang-orang Portugis, kemudian disusul bangsa Spanyol dan Belanda. Untuk menghindari persaingan dan konflik antara Portugis dan Spanyol, diadakanlah perjanjian Tordesillas tahun 1494. Dalam perjanjian itu dinyatakan bahwa dunia ini dibagi dua bagian. Daerah-daerah sebelah timur dikuasakan kepada Portugis dan sebelah barat diberikan kepada Spanyol. Isi perjanjian ini semakin mendorong bangsa-bangsa Portugis dan Spanyol untuk melakukan pelayaran dan penemuan daerah-daerah baru. Pelayaran-pelayaran tersebut antara lain:

1. Pelayaran Fernando de Magelhaens

Fernando de Magelhaens adalah seorang penjelajah adalah seorang penjelajah laut Portugis yang berlayar atas nama Spanyol. Ia orang pertama yang melayari Samudra Pasifik mencari daratan Asia sekaligus orang pertama yang melakukan ekspedisi mengelilingi dunia. Meskipun Magelhaens sendiri tewas terbunuh oleh Datuk Lapu-Lapu di Filipina dalam persinggahannya di Hindia Timur sebelum menuju Eropa, delapan belas anggota kru dan armadanya berhasil kembali ke Spanyol pada tahun 1522, setelah mengelilingi bumi. Magelhaens banyak memperoleh pendidikan dari Christopher Columbus yang baru kembali dari Amerika setelah mencari rute pelayaran laut menuju Indonesia yang saat itu sangat terkenal sebagai penghasil rempah-rempah. Fernando kemudian bercita-cita menjadi seorang penjelajah dunia. Ketika Vasco da Gama kembali dari India membawa pulang rempah-rempah, Raja Manuel memerintahkan Magelhaens melakukan ekspedisi tahun 1505 dari Afrika Timur dan India dalam sebuah armada Portugal mengambil alih perdagangan rempah dari para pedagang Arab. Setelah itu, ia berlayar lebih jauh ke timur ke Malaka bersama ekspedisi militer.



Magelhaens banyak berdiskusi dengan seorang navigator terkenal, Joāo de Lisboa. Mereka membahas strategi mencapai Kepulauan Rempah (Indonesia) sehingga diputuskan melalui el paso—sebuah selat yang menjadi jalan pintas melewati Amerika Selatan, kemudian menyeberangi samudera Pasifik yang telah ditemukan Balboa ketika melintasi tanah genting Panama. Mereka yakin bahwa di sisi lain samudera ini terletak Kepulauan Rempah (Indonesia). Magelhaens kini sangat berambisi melakukan ekspedisi yang sebelumnya gagal dilakukan Columbus yaitu menemukan rute barat menuju Timur, yang ia yakini lebih pendek daripada rute sebelah timur. Untuk memperoleh pendanaan, ia meminta raja Spanyol untuk membiayai ekspedisi yang akan dilakukannya.

Magelhaens kemudian menyampaiakn keinginan dan pendapatnya kepada penguasa muda Spanyol, Charles I yang berminat akan rute sebelah barat ke Kepulauan Rempah yang diajukan Magelhaens karena ini akan menutup jalur perdagangan Portugal. Charles kemudian memberi Magelhaens lima kapal tua untuk diperbaiki dan dipersiapkan guna ekspedisi tersebut. Ia diangkat menjadi kapten armada tersebut dan dijanjikan mendapat bagian laba penjualan rempah-rempah yang dibawa pulang.

Pada tanggal 20 September 1519, rombongan ekspedisi Magelhaens yang terdiri kapal San Antonio, Concepción, Victoria, Santiago dan Trinidad mengikuti kapal induk Magelhaens, berlayar menuju Amerika Selatan. Pada tanggal 13 Desember, mereka mencapai Brasil, sambil menatap Pegunungan Sugarloaf yang mengesankan, mereka memasuki teluk Rio de Janeiro yang indah untuk perbaikan dan mengisi perbekalan. Kemudian mereka melanjutkan ke selatan ke tempat yang sekarang adalah Argentina, senantiasa mencari-cari el paso, jalur yang sulit ditemukan yang menuju ke samudera lain. Sementara itu, udara semakin dingin dan gunung es mulai tampak. Akhirnya, pada tanggal 31 Maret 1520, Magelhaens memutuskan untuk melewatkan musim salju di pelabuhan San Julián yang dingin. Kehadiran kapal asing di pelabuhan pastilah menarik perhatian penduduk lokal yang kuat dan berbadan besar. Merasa seperti orang kerdil dibandingkan dengan penduduk setempat ini, Magelhaens kemudian menyebut daratan itu Patagonia (dari kata Spanyol yang berarti "kaki besar") dan nama Patagonia berlaku hingga hari ini.
SELAT MAGELHAENS, PATAGONIA
Tantangan alam terjadi saat rombongan Magelhaens mencapai linngkaran kutub selatan. Di daerah ini sering badai yang ganas secara tiba-tiba. Kapal Santiago mengalami kerusakan parah akibat karam namun para awaknya dapat diselamatkan dari kapal. Setelah itu, keempat kapal yang masih bertahan, terjebak di tengah arus laut yang membeku dan tak kunjung reda. Mereka terus berjuang menuju ke selatan ke perairan yang semakin dingin hingga tanggal 21 Oktober. Setelah berlayar di bawah guyuran hujan salju, mereka akhirnya menemukan selat El paso yang kini dikenal dengan sebutan Selat Magelhaens. Ketiga kapal yang masih bertahanmelayari teluk sempit di antara tebing-tebing berselimut salju dan berkelok-kelok. Setelah itu mereka berlayar menuju sebuah samudra yang tenang sehingga Magelhaens menamakannya Pasifik. Namun diluar dugaan, perairan yang mereka layari seakan tak berujung sehingga mereka kehabisan, semakin lemah, dan banyak yang jatuh sakit. Sembilan belas orang meninggal pada saat mereka mencapai Kepulauan Mariana, pada tanggal 6 Maret 1521. Setelah bentrok dengna penduduk pulau, mereka hanya berhasil mendapat sedikit makanan segar sebelum berangkat. Kemudian, pada tanggal 16 Maret, mereka berhasil mencapai melihat Filipina. Akhirnya, rombongan ekspedisi ini mendapat makanan yang baik, beristirahat, dan memulihkan kesehatan dan kekuatan mereka.
SELAT MAGELHAENS, PATAGONIA CILE
Sebagai pria yang sangat religius, Magelhaens mengajak banyak penduuduk lokal dan penguasa mereka pada agama Katolik. Tetapi semangatnya juga menjadi akhir hidupnya. Ia terlibat dalam pertikaian antarsuku. Magelhaens dan sejumlah bawahannya tewas. Ketika Magelhaens tewas, ia berada di daerah yang tidak asing. Tidak jauh ke arah selatan terletak Kepulauan Rempah (Indonesia) dan ke arah barat terletak Malaka, tempat ia pernah berjuang pada tahun 1511. Seandainya, ia berlayar ke Filipina setelah pertempuran di Malaka, maka Magelhans telah mengelilingi bola bumi meskipun tidak dalam sekali jalan. Ia telah mencapai Filipina dari timur dan barat. Karena jumlah awak kapal tinggal sedikit, mereka menenggelamkan kapal Concepción dan berlayar dengan dua kapal yang masih tinggal ke tujuan terakhir mereka, Kepulauan Rempah. Kemudian, setelah mengisi muatan dengan rempah-rempah, kedua kapal itu berpisah. Akan tetapi, awak kapal Trinidad ditangkap oleh Portugal dan dipenjarakan.
MAGELHAENS STRAIT FROM SPACE
Namun, Victoria, di bawah komando mantan pemberontak Juan Sebastián de Elcano, luput. Sambil menghindari semua pelabuhan kecuali satu, mereka mengambil risiko melewati rute Portugal mengelilingi Tanjung Harapan. Mereka kemudian mencapai Spanyol pada tanggal 6 September 1522 (tiga tahun sejak keberangkatan mereka) Sisa awak kapal yang selamat tinggal 18. Namun tidak dapat dibantah merekalah orang pertama yang berlayar mengelilingi bumi. Juan Sebastián de Elcano pun menjadi pahlawan dan muatan rempah kapal Victoria seberat 26 ton rempah-rempah dapat menutupi biaya ekspedisi. Nama Magelhaens mendapat kehormatan yang selayaknya. Sebuah selat menyandang namanya, Namanya juga tercatat sebagai nama galaksi dan pesawat ruang angkasa Magellan. Nama Samudera Pasifik juga pemberian Magelhaens. 
Thank to wikipedia

Sabtu, 19 November 2011

Borobudur, Indonesia's cultural masterpiece

Borobudur is Culture heritage shaped temple, located in the Borobudur Village, District of Borobudur, Magelang regency, Central Java Province. Geographical environment of Borobudur Temple surrounded by Mount Merapi and Merbabu in the east, Mount Sindoro and Cleft in the north, and mountains Menoreh south, and is located between River Progo and the Elo. Borobudur temple is built upon a hill that has been modified, with a height of 265 above sea level. Borobudur Temple is one of the wonders of the world that exist in Indonesia. This temple is a Buddhist place of worship which was built during the Old Kingdom of Mataram, on syailendra dynasty.

Historian J.G. de Casparis in his dissertation argues that Borobudur is a place of worship. Based on the inscriptions Karangtengah and Kahulunan, Casparis estimate Borobudur founder of the dynasty was the king of Mataram dynasty named Samaratungga, who do construction around the year 824 AD The giant new building could be completed at the time of her daughter, Queen Pramudawardhani. Borobudur Development estimated take half a century.

Structure Borobudur Temple
  • Borobudur has the basic structure punden terraces, with a six-yard square, three round circular courtyard and a main stupa as a peak. Also scattered in all yard several stupas.
  • Plan Borobudur length 121.66 meters, 121.38 meters wide and height 35.40 meters
  • Building consist a nine terraces and a main stupa at its peak. Consists of 6 core and 3 core circle square
  • There are stairs at the four main directions with the main entrance to the east
  • Borobudur stones from the river in the vicinity of Borobudur with total volume of around 55,000 square meters (approximately two million pieces of stone)
History of discovery

Borobudur was discovered in 1814 when Sir Thomas Stanford Raffles, the British Governor-General in Indonesia, held activities in Semarang. Raffles obtain information in Kedu area have been found pictorial stone structure. He then sent Cornelius (a Dutchman) to clean it. This work was continued by the Resident Kedu named Hartman in 1835. In addition to cleaning activities, he also conducted research in particular towards the top of the stupa of Borobudur temple, but unfortunately on this research report was never published. Documentation in the form of picture building and temple reliefs made by Wilsen for 4 years since 1849, while the photo document created in 1873 by Van Kinsbergen. According to the legend, the Borobudur Temple was founded by architect ,Gunadharma, but historically has not been clearly established. Casparis opinion based on interpretation of the inscription with year number 824 AD and the inscriptions of Sri Kahulunan 842 AD, the founder of the Borobudur Temple is Smaratungga who ruled in 782-812 AD during the Syailendra dynasty. Borobudur was built to glorify the Mahayana Buddhism.

Prambanan, priceless heritage

Prambanan temple is one of the heritage history that show the high civilization of Indonesia in the past. This building historic is the largest Temple Hindu in Indonesia. Prambanan temple is located on the island of Java, approximately 20 km east of Yogyakarta, 40 km west of Surakarta and 120 km south of Semarang, just on the border between the provinces of Central Java and Yogyakarta. Prambanan Temple located in the village whose territory is divided between the districts of Sleman and Klaten.

 Prambanan is the largest Hindu temple in Southeast Asia, with 47m high main building. Temple complex comprises eight main temples and about 250 small temples. Three main temple called Trisakti to worship the Trimurti: Shiva Batara the Destroyer, Vishnu the Preserver and Batara Brahma the Creator. This temple was built in around the year 850 AD by King Rakai Pikatan, which comes from the Sanjaya dynasty.
 
This temple was discovered by CA. Lons a Dutch nationality in 1733. in 1855 Jan Willem IJzerman began to clean up and move some rocks and soil from the temple room, then Isaac Groneman conduct large-scale demolition. Many parts of the temple is renovated using new stones, because many of the original stones were stolen or reused elsewhere. A temple will only be restored if at least 75% of the original stone is still there. Therefore, many small temples are not rebuilt and only looked foundation.


Prambanan Temple also known as Roro Jonggrang temple associated with the legend narrating about a girl named Roro Jonggrang Putri Prabu Boko. Prabu Boko is the King who built his kingdom on the hill south of the temple complex of Prambanan. Shiva temple in the middle, has four rooms, one room contains a statue of Shiva Batara with three meters tall, the other three statues contain a smaller size, the statue of Durga, Shiva Batara or wife, Agastya, teacher, and Ganesh, son. Brahma Temple and temple Whisnu respectively - each only have one room that is occupied by a statue of the god - the god in question. The third front of the temple there are three temples that contain a vehicle or vehicles the third god. 
Sixth temple occupies a square area, with a side length of 110 meters. In the courtyard of the main temple stands the temple - the other temples are 2 temples with a height of 16 meters and 8 other small temples.yard inside the temple, Hindu community regarded as the most sacred territory. This page has sides 222 meters, at first page contains a temple - as many as 224 small temples that lined up around the yard. Prambanan temple complex is now a tourist attraction which can be visited every day between the hours of 06:00 to 17:30. Prambanan temple complex is located only a few hundred yards from the roadway of Yogya - Solo crossed a crowded public transport.

Taj Mahal is an amazing historical heritage

Taj Mahal is an amazing historical heritage in the face of the earth. This building historic is the proof that love has an unlimited power. Historic buildings is created because the power of love of Mughal emperor Shah Jahan to his beloved wife Mumtaz-ul-Zamani or Mumtaz Mahal. Its construction took 23 years (1630-1653) and is a masterpiece of Mughal architecture. Shah Jahan, emperor of the Mughal Empire has a great wealth during its heyday.

In 1631 his second wife died while giving birth her daughter Gauhara Begum, their 14th child. Mumtaz Mahal died at the age of 39 years, when it gave birth to the 14th in the year 1631. The Consort's death this makes the King so afflicted. Before he died, Mumtaz request the king made the tomb that has never existed in the world. The King then mobilize 20 thousand workers to carry out the message that his wife. Originally, the mosque was only referred to as the tomb of Mumtaz Mahal, but eventually develop into the Taj Mahal. Taj Mahal when translated means ''crown Palace", an extension of the name Mumtaz Mahal, who came from Persia.
  
Building materials were brought from all over India and Central Asia using 1000 elephants until the main dome stands 57 meters tall. 28 beautiful stones from around the Asia region is used. Like the red sandstone of Fatehpur Sikri, jasper from Punjab, jade and crystal from China, turquoise from Tibet, lazuli and sapphires from Sri Lanka, coal and stone kornelian from Arabic, and diamonds from Panna. The floor was made of marble which glow from Makrana, Rajasthan. Unlike other Mughal tombs, the Taj Mahal gardens are in front of the tomb. Background of the Taj Mahal is the sky, so the Taj Mahal looks so sparkling with color. The composition of shapes and lines were perfectly symmetrical.

Chinese Great Wall Symbols greatness history

Chinese Great Wall.  this historic building is a spectacular historical heritage, one of the seven wonders of the world. The building was made by the force of human instinct to survive from enemy attack. Great Wall of China reached 6400 km in length extending from the region Sanhai Pass in the east to Lop Nur in the west. Height of 8 meters, 5 meters wide at the top. Each distance of 180-270 m made a kind of watchtower with High 11-12 m. western end The fort is located at the of Gansu Province of China Jiayu West and Eastern tip on Yalu River on the edge of Northeast China's Liaoning Province, past the 9 provinces, municipalities and autonomous regions along the 7300 kilometers. In 1987, These building included in the list of World Heritage history. Sites by UNESCO.
The Great Wall was built with big stones, soil and rock fragments inserted. Height of approximately 10 meters and a width of approximately 5 meters, enough for 4 horses running side by side, Thus it's easy to maneuver, transport of troops, weapons and food. Inner side of the wall was built doors and stairs to climb down. Great Wall connected with the castle or the tower of fire in every sector, its function for storing weapons and food supplies. Fortress and the fire tower was also used as a resting place soldiers in peacetime and defense to fend off enemy attacks during the war. ignited a fire in the tower when the enemy attacked at night. If activated fire during the daytime cloud of smoke that spread throughout the country to mark the enemy's attack.

 To make this giant wall takes hundreds of years. According to the research and historical records, the wall was already made before the Qin Dynasty stand, Emperor Qin Shi-huang continue development and strengthening of the wall. After the death of Qin Shi-huang, making the walls had been halted and resumed in Sui Dynasty. Last process development done at the time of the Ming Dynasty. Form the Great Wall today is a result of development of the Ming era between the years 1368 and 1644.
In the year 221 BC, Emperor Qinshihuang unify China. After that, the Emperor ordered that the great wall built as a fort to fend off cavalry attacks from ethnic nomadic Mongolia grassland. As a blockhouse, built the Great Wall follows the contours of the mountains. Through a very complicated topography such as deserts, swamps and grasslands.To adjust to the different topography,construction of the Great Wall of using different ways. This shows the intelligence of the Chinese ancestor.

The beauty of the Great Wall is reflected in the splendor, power and greatness. Looking from a distance to the Great Wall will look like a giant dragon winding down the mountain. When viewed from close range, then the wall was full of artistic fascination with amazing architecture.

Colosseum, the Roman triumph of historical heritage

Colosseum is one of the heritage of the triumph of the Roman empire. This historic building was made to place the show gladiators, executions of prisoners and the fight between animals. Colosseum became a massacre so that thousands of people and animals die in this place. The building in the form of an ellipse-shaped stadium, length 188 m, height of 48 m and the extent of 2.5 hectares. Arena games are made of wood measuring 86 mx 54 m and covered with sand. The floor covered with sand aims to prevent the blood does not flow everywhere. Elliptical shape aims to prevent the gladiators ran to the corner and prevents the audience near to the show. Colosseum could accommodate 50,000 spectators. This building became one of the greatest works of Roman architecture ever built.

Colosseum into the wonders of the world, situated in the middle of the city of Rome Italy. According to archaeologists, the Colosseum was made in 70-82 AD was founded King Vespasian in the during the roman empire. Colosseum comes from the name of a statue 130 feet or 40 m, named Colossus. Colossus Statue is the embodiment of the sun god.
Seating is divided into tiers based on social status in Roman society.
 
 The main stands are located in the north and south to the Emperor and his family. In this place there is a place of rest and storage property.
  1. Second tribune for the senators and they are allowed to bring their own chairs. The names of senators are still visible from the carvings on the stone seat.
  2. third tribune, seating for nobles, called Maenianum Primum
  3. The fourth stands divided into three parts. at the bottom is called immum, where rich people sit. at the top again (summum), used for the commoners. And lastly, (maenianum secundum in legneis)  a place made of wood located at the top of the building. The place was just to stand , used for the women of lowly
 

Colosseum is still in use until the year 217, although it has been damaged by fire due to being struck by lightning. Colosseum has been improved in the year 238 and gladiatorial games continued until Christian people gradually stop the game because it takes too many casualties. The building was then used to store various types of animals until year 524 AD. Two earthquakes in the years 442 and 508 cause severe damage to the building. In the Middle Ages, the Colosseum was badly damaged by the earthquake again that in the year 847 and 1349 and serve as a fortress and a church was also established there.

Kaaba, the sacred Muslim Building


Kaaba is a historic building one of the seven wonders of the world, a place sacred to Muslims. This building is also called the Baitullah, a center of worship and Qibla of Muslims when praying. The shape resembles a cube height 13.10 m and 11.03 m x12 side, 62m. located in the middle of the Grand Mosque in Makkah. Every year millions of Muslims from all over the world visited this place for pilgrimage. Historians opinions differ as to who founded the Kaaba. Some opinions say angels, and there is an opinion that ka'ba founding is prophet adam.

Kaaba a renovated by Prophet Ibrahim and Prophet Ismail in the Qur`an, 14:37 was explained that the Kaaba was there when the Prophet Abraham to place the Black Stone and baby Ishmael in that place. When the Prophet Muhammad was 30 years old, this building was renovated again due to flash floods that hit the city of Mecca. Originally Kaaba building consists of two doors. But because of lack of funds, building the Kaaba made only one. Doors Ka'ba is located on the ground, not like now, the door is a bit high. At that time there is a conflict between tribal leaders when it will be placed back aswad stone. But the figure of the Prophet Muhammad's leadership could ease the tension without the any aggrieved party.

When the Prophet Muhammad was appointed as the Messenger (Rasul), and moved to the city of Medina, Ka'ba environment full of sculpture as the embodiment of God of the Arabs when the darkness of thought (jahilliyah). The teachings of Prophet Ibrahim and Prophet Moses to not worship objects or living things, not adhered to the Arab nation at that time. Prophet Muhammad clean up all the sculptures in the Kaaba and liberate the city of Mecca without bloodshed.
 The building was then in the care of the Bani Sya'ibah. Hajj Administration and services regulated by the government caliphs Abu Bakr, Umar ibn Khattab, Uthman ibn Affan, Ali ibn Abi Talib, Muawiyah ibn Abu Sufyan, Ummayyah dynasty, Abbasid dynasty, Ottoman Turkish dynasty. Until now, the royal government of Saudi Arabia is responsible for taking care of two Muslim holy cities, Mecca and Medina. Prophet Muhammad had to cancel his plans to renovate again Kaaba, because his followers newly converted to Islam. When Abdullah bin Zubair govern the Hijaz region, the building was rebuilt according to the message of Prophet Muhammad.
But when there is war with Abdul Malik bin Marwan Sham area authorities (now Syria, Jordan, Lebanon and Palestine), the Kaaba burned by gunfire Sham troops. Abdul Malik bin Marwan became caliph, the renovation of the Kaaba on the basis of the building at the time of Prophet Muhammad SAW and not based on the foundation of Prophet Ibrahim. Ka’ba in the history of the next several times suffered damage as a result of the war and as age of the building. When the reign the Abbasid Caliphate, the Caliph Harun al-Rashid's plans to renovate the ka'ba again according to the foundation of Prophet Ibrahim and Prophet Muhammad desired. But this plan was opposed a leading cleric, Imam Malik for fear that the next ruler always will be dismantled ka'ba .

Al-Aqsa Mosque, the second qibla Muslims

Al-Aqsa Mosque, also is one of Islam's holy places, part of a complex of sacred buildings in the Old City of Jerusalem (East Jerusalem). Al-Aqsa is one of the historical heritage of Islamic civilization in the world. This mosque complex known to Muslims as Al-Haram ash-Sharif or "noble sanctuary. " Jews and Christians know as the Temple Mount. Al-Aqsa Mosque is considered as the third holy place of Muslims, entry in the series of events Isra'Mi'raj. The Book of Hadith explains that Muhammad taught Muslims oriented towards Al-Aqsa Mosque (Baitul Maqdis) until 17 months after moving to Medina. After that, change the direction to pray in the Kaaba to the present. Al-Aqsa Mosque in the holy book called the Qur’an in the events of Isra 'Mi'raj.

Al-Aqsa Mosque was originally a small house of worship founded by Umar bin Khattab, one of the Khulafah Rasyidin, then repaired the Umayyad Caliph Abdul Malik and completed by his son Al-Walid in 705 AD.After the earthquake in 746, the mosque was completely destroyed and rebuilt by the Abbasid caliph al-Mansur in 754, and discontinued by his successor al-Mahdi in 780. The next earthquake destroyed most of the Al-Aqsa in 1033 and repaired by the Caliph Ali Azh-Zahir Fatimiyyah to stand until now. In a variety of renovation, various Islamic Caliphate dynasties have made additional mosque and the surrounding region, such as the dome, facade, chancel, tower, and the interior of the building.
 
When the Crusaders conquered Jerusalem in 1099, they were using the mosque as a palace and churches, mosques function restored after Saladin recaptured the city. Renovation, repair, and further additions made centuries later by the leader of the Ayyubid, Mamluk, Ottoman, Islamic Supreme Council, and Jordan. Currently, the Old City of Jerusalem is under Israeli control, but the mosque was still under guardianship of Islamic waqf institutions Palestinian leadership.
The burning of the Al-Aqsa Mosque on August 21, 1969 to encourage the founding of the Organization of Islamic Conference which currently consists of 57 countries. The burning also caused the ancient pulpit Saladin Al-Ayyubi burned down. Dynasty of Bani Hashim, the ruler of the Kingdom of Jordan has been replaced with a new pulpit who worked in Jordan, but some say the pulpit made in Jepara used in this mosque. 
The name al-Aqsa Mosque when translated means "the farthest mosque". The name is derived from information in the Qur'an in Surah Al-Isra 'verse 1. Ascension of the Prophet Muhammad is a journey undertaken from Mosque Al-Haram to Mosque al-Aqsa, and then ascended into heaven. In Sahih Bukhari explained in the course of the Prophet Muhammad riding the Al-Buraq. The term "farthest" in use in the context of the "farthest from Mecca". For centuries, the Al-Aqsa Mosque is in fact not only mosques, but also the area around the building, which is considered a sacred place. The name change occurred during the reign of the Ottoman empire (approximately the 16th century until early 1918). complex in the vicinity of the mosque called Al-Haram ash-Sharif, and building a mosque that was founded by Umar bin Khattab called Jami 'al-Aqsa or Al-Aqsa Mosque.

Blue Mosque, the legacy of Ottoman glory

Blue mosque is a relic of historic Turkish Ottoman Empire and and one of the historic buildings. Called "blue mosque" because the blue dome lid. The mosque is located in Istanbul city of Turkey, was built by Sultan Ahmed I in 1609 and completed in 1612. Sultan Ahmed Blue Mosque built to emulate the Hagia building artificial Sopia Byzantine emperor (Constantin I). Hagia Sopia located one block from the Blue Mosque. Before falling into Otoman Turkish empire in 1453 AD, Hagia Sopia is the Byzantine Church. Blue Mosque has six minarets, dome diameter of 23.5 meters, 43 meters high dome, concrete pole diameter of 5 meters.
This mosque is one of two mosques in Turkey that has six tower. Due to the number of towers similar to the Grand Mosque in Mecca, when that King of Ahmad received sharp criticism, so he is donating the cost of making the seventh tower to the Grand Mosque . Above the door of the Blue Mosque in pairs of heavy iron chain. Only the King can be enter into the courtyard with riding horses. If the King will enter to the mosque, he must bowed his head so as not to hit the chain. This is the mean, symbol of humility in front the power of the divine ruler. Besides beautiful scenery, beautiful historic buildings filled Istanbul. Not far from the Blue Mosque, Aya Sofia museum there. As well as the beauty of its architecture, Aya Sofia is very unique because of its history. Originally Aya Sofia is the church in the heyday Konstatinopel, then converted into a mosque, after 500 years and since the secular government of the Republic of Turkey at the turn into the museum. 
 
Blue Mosque, until now, still function as a place of worship. Entering the mosque complex, we passed a protected flower garden shade tree. A place of ablution lined the front side before entering the mosque welcomed us inside the mosque complex. When entering the mosque space tourists must dress modestly. Women should wear veils. The guards are always ready to remind the front entrance. The mosque is also composed from marble pillars, and more from 200 stained glass windows with various designs, emitting light from outside.In the chandeliers, ostricheggs laid to prevent the spider made a nest there. Other Decorative calligraphicverses of the Qur'an, mostly made by Seyyid Kasim Gubari, one of the bestcalligraphers at that time.

Angkor Wat, Cambodia's world wonders

Angkor Wat is a historic building, shaped a temple, located in the city of Angkor, Cambodia, and is regarded as one of the wonders of the world. Angkor Wat is a heritage history, was built King Suryavarman II mid-12th century AD .Development of Angkor Wat temple would take 30 years. Angkor Wat Angkor located in the plains, where dozens of building a beautiful temple.Angkor Wat is the most famous temple in Angkor plain. According to Hindu faith,Mount Meru is the center of the world, and the residence of Hindu deities. That is why the temples of Angkor are placed here. Tower of Angkor Wat highest located in the middle, and became the main tower building in the complex of Angkor Wat.

Angkor Wat area surrounded by walls and canal, as a symbol of the ocean andmountains that surround the world. The main entrance to Angkor Wat and a half mileseach decorated fence and flanked by man-made sea called the Baray. The entrance tothe temple of Angkor Wat through the gate, representing the rainbow jambatan naturallink with the natural world of the gods. Condition of Angkor Wat is best compared to other temples in the Angkor plain. Since the 13th century Buddhism in Cambodia is more growing than the Hindu religion.Angkor Wat and then functioned a Buddhist temple, maintained and used continuouslyuntil now.

Prophet`s mosque, an Islamic heritage

Prophet's Mosque, is one of the most important mosque located in the city of Medina,Saudi Arabia because it was built by Prophet Muhammad. This mosque is a historic building and historical legacy of Islamic glory, become the tomb of the Messenger and his friends. The mosque is one of the main mosque for Muslims after the Grand Mosque in Mecca and the Al-Aqsa  mosque in Jerusalem. Prophet's Mosque is the second mosque, built by the Prophet Muhammad, after the Quba Mosque, founded on the way migrate from Mecca to Medina. Prophet's Mosque was built since the first Prophet arrived in Medina. The location the previously a place for drying dates belonging orphans Sahl and Suhailbin 'Amr. The land was later purchased to build a mosque of the Prophet Muhammadand his residence.

Originally, this mosque measuring approximately 50 m × 50 m, with high roofs of about 3.5 m. Prophet helped build with his own hands, together with the friends and theMuslims. Walls on all four sides of the mosque are made of brick and soil, while theroofs of palm leaves with a pole from the trunk of dates. Part its roof allowed open just like that. Over the past first nine years, this mosquewithout lighting at night. Only at the time of Isha, held a little lighting by burning straw. On one side of the mosque, built the residence of the Prophet Muhammad. Houses of the Prophet is not how large and nothing more luxurious than state mosque, only moreclosed. Moreover, there are also parts that are used as place-poor indigent peoplewho do not own a house. These people are known as ahlussufah or residents the porch of the mosque.


The mosque was renovated and expanded several times. The first renovation undertaken by the Caliph Umar ibn al-Khattab in the year 17 H, and the second by caliph Uthman ibn Affan in the year 29 H In modern times, King Abdul Aziz of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia extend this mosque to be 6024 m² in the year 1372 H. This expansion was followed by his successor, King Fahd in the year 1414 H, so that the mosque building area of almost 100,000 m², plus the top floor of a reach vast 67,000 m² and the court of the mosque that can be used to pray with an area of 135,000 m². Now, the Prophet's Mosque can accommodate approximately 535,000 pilgrims.
Prophet Muhammad is buried in the place of death, that is the previously room Faithful Umm Aisha RA, wife of the Prophet. Near the tomb of the Prophet Muhammad, is buried two nearby companions, Abu Bakr al-Siddiq and Umar bin Khattab. Expansion of the tomb of the Prophet's Mosque third cause is now in the mosque, that is at the southeast corner of the mosque. Aisha and the other companions, is buried in public graveyards Baqi. The pastseparated far enough, now with the expansion of the mosque, Baqi be locatedadjacent to the court of the Prophet's Mosque.

Thanks to wikipedia

Eiffel tower, icon of the Paris City

Eiffel tower is identical and historic building in  Paris City. The haritage of this historic can be said symbol of the Paris City, and became a magnet for millions of tourists all over the world for visit it. visit to France is incomplete if it does not visit the Eiffel. Eiffel Tower is located in the Champ de Mars, the River Seine, Paris. Eiffel is a global icon of France, famous buildings in the world even one of the wonders of the world. This tower was built in 1889 and designed by Gustave Eiffel, so the name also derives from the name eiffel designer. More than 200,000,000 people have visited the tower since its construction in 1889, even in 2006 reached 6.7192 million a fantastic journey, so that the visit object of most tourists in the world. tower structure 325 m high, is approximately equal to the 81 floor building.

Eiffel Tower Data

Construction January 28, 1887 - March 30, 1889 (2 years, 2 months, 5 days)
In the Wake by Alexandre Gustave Eiffel
Architect Charles Leon Stephen Sauvestre
Construction cost 7.4 million Frances
Building materials materials made of wrought iron. The foundation made of reinforced
Size Height 300.65 m (without antenna), 324 m (with antenna)
Base surface area 350 m2.
Weight 7,000 tons.
Access Lifts and Elevator
The number of households 1710 steps (step).

Since 1889 this tower breaking record building tallest in the world's until 1930. this record then replaced by the Chrysler Building in New York City (1047 feet) after finished constructed. The metal structure of the Eiffel Tower weighs 7300 tons, and the weight of the entirestructure including non-metal components weighing 10,000 tons. The tower this alsoswinging 6-7 cm (2-3 inches) when the wind was blowing pretty fresh. First and second levels are accessible by stairs and elevator. Visitors can reach this place via the stairs on the south. Care is needed to tower 50 to 60 tons of paint every seven years to avoidcorrosion. The tower is also in the paint with three different colors. Dark color to thebottom, and light color on top.

Eiffel was built to big events greet World Exposition, or world-class exhibition in celebration of one century the French revolution. Gustave Eiffel was originally going to build this tower in the city of Barcelona, but the city government considered the project too expensive and not suitable for the city of Barcelona. Gustave Eiffel then send the proposal to the city of Paris, and was recently approved by one more year. The tower this inaugurated on March 31, 1889, and opened on May 6. To build 18,083 towers require 300 workers and 2.5 million component of iron nails.

Eiffel has standing permission for 20 years, means must be dismantled in 1909, when ownership transferred to the government of the City of Paris. The city government has planned to demolish. The city government has planned to demolish, but canceled due to profitable in terms of economic, military, or development of communication networks. Eiffel tower dedicated  to the 72 names of scientists, engineers and other famous people, which is written in the tower. The names were removed in the early 20th century but restored in 1986-1987 by Société Nouvelle d'Exploitation de la Tour Eiffel.

Pyramids giza

Great Pyramids Giza is a historic building, the oldest and largest pyramid from the three pyramids at Giza Nekropolis. Pyramids Giza is the heritage of ancient Egyptian civilization and one of the Seven Wonders of World. According to historians, this pyramid is used as apharaoh's tomb, the fourth dynasty of Egypt. Pyramids Giza was built around 2560 BC,takes time more than 20 years. This pyramid also often called the pyramid of Khufu. Pyramids Giza area located in the area near Cairo (Egypt), pyramids are found here the largest compared to pyramid on earth.Pyramids Giza or the great pyramids in the desert lies a temperature more than 35 degrees Celsius, comprising three plus one big Pyramid Sphinx. The third pyramid is Khufu (Cheops), Khafre (Rakhaef / Chephren) and Menkaure (Mycerinus) plus three small pyramids. Each pyramid of Cheops, Chepren and Mycerinus have similarity Interior.
There is a king room, queen room, the door tunnel (diameter 1.5 meters, length 40meters). Majority population of Egypt at that time as a farmer. they utilize the river valley Nile for irrigation agricultural areas. Giza pyramid complex built around the ancient Egyptians 5,000 years ago has a total area equal to the distance from St. Peter (Rome), the Cathedral of Florence (Milan) up to St. Louis. Paul (London). Also believed to set the stone in the Pyramid of Giza when put together can make a wall 3 meters high with a thickness of 0.3 meters that could surround the whole of France. When compared to the Empire State Building in New York, the pyramid is 30 timeslarger and can even be seen from the moon. The Ancient Egyptians werebuilt it in 30years . There is a clear stone bricks of the pyramids of Giza are the result of casting,accurate construction of gravity and center of the object. Even at the Pyramids of Gizawas built by the suspected UFO because it deals with the portrait of the pyramids on Mars.
According to research scientists and archaeologists, pyramid-making raw materials taken from several places. For example, the Tura limestone, granite from Aswan,copper from Sinai and the wood for the coffins of Lebanon, all of which are transportedthrough the Nile. Workers average worker died at a young age (around 30 years),suffered spinal injuries due to carrying a very heavy burden. Archaeologists also foundevidence of an emergency relief for the injured worker.

Allegations were made Jean-Pierre Houdin after studying data from the American Egyptian historian, Bob Brier, who combined with simulation of three-dimensional (3D). The results provide clues about the possibility there are two secret rooms in the heart of the big building.

Secondly the room was estimated as a area used storage furniture Pharaoh Khufu in nature supernatural. According to Houdin, the existence of the room hidden clues obtained from a similar room in the Pyramid Snefru, father of Khufu. So most likely the same design was also used in the Pyramids Giza.  Moreover, the blocks are located in the south wall of the room the king indicated a suspected road leading to the secret room and use the participant's funeral as a way out of the pyramid.

Reference:  http://nationalgeographic.co.id, indolist.com

Volcano Yellowstone

Yellowstone Volcano is one of a series of active volcanoes located on the west coast of the United States. Mountains of fire in this region is part of a ring of fire thatsurrounds the Pacific Ocean, and into areas prone to earthquakes. YellowstoneVolcano storing wealth of flora, animal and amazing natural beauty, so designated as nature conservation area in the world's first-named Yellowstone National Park. Yellowstone National Park is a national park in the United States Located in the state of Wyoming, Montana, and Idaho. Covering 3468 square miles (8983 km ²).Yellowstone National Park is the world's oldest national park, established on March 1,1872 when the leadership of U.S. President Ulysses S. Grant. 
Yellowstone National Park is famous for its geysers and hot springs. World famousgeyser, Old Faithful Geyser, is here. Here also live grizzly bears, wolves, bison anddeer. Many tourists visit this place to witness the lives of wildlife and natural beauty. 
The Yellowstone Plateau volcanic field developed through three volcanic cycles spanning two million years that included some of the world's largest known eruptions. Eruption of the >2450 cu km Huckleberry Ridge Tuff about 2.1 million years ago created the more than 75-km-long Island Park caldera. The second cycle concluded with the eruption of the Mesa Falls Tuff around 1.3 million years ago, forming the 16-km-wide Henrys Fork caldera at the western end of the first caldera. Activity subsequently shifted to the present Yellowstone Plateau and culminated 640,000 years ago with the eruption of the >1000 cu km Lava Creek Tuff and the formation of the present 45 x 85 km caldera. Resurgent doming subsequently occurred at both the NE and SW sides of the caldera and voluminous (1000 cu km) intracaldera rhyolitic lava flows were erupted between 150,000 and 70,000 years ago. No magmatic eruptions have occurred since the late Pleistocene, but large phreatic eruptions took place near Yellowstone Lake during the Holocene. Yellowstone is presently the site of one of the world's largest hydrothermal systems including Earth's largest concentration of geysers. 

Location: Western US, WY 
Latitude: 44.43
Longitude: -110.67 
Elevation: 2805 m 

Yellowstone's world-famous natural history is marked by such colossal volcanic events that their reflections in today's landscape are difficult to grasp and impossible to take in at just a glance, even for those familiar with the signs of past volcanism. The stunning features of Yellowstone National Park result from great explosive eruptions and profound collapse of the ground, enormously thick lava flows, uplift and extensive faulting, and the erosive power of flowing water and ice. For more than a century, geologists have discovered and analyzed evidence of the dramatic events that have shaped the land here. When combined with growing knowledge about how volcanoes work and the never-ending motion of Earth's surface, the evidence tells a remarkable story of the Yellowstone landscape. 

The stunning features of Yellowstone National Park result from great explosive eruptions and profound collapse of the ground, enormously thick lava flows, uplift and extensive faulting, and the erosive power of flowing water and ice. For more than a century, geologists have discovered and analyzed evidence of the dramatic events that have shaped the land here. When combined with growing knowledge about how volcanoes work and the never-ending motion of Earth's surface, the evidence tells a remarkable story of the Yellowstone landscape. 

The volcanism most directly identified with the Yellowstone region has, during about the past 2 million years, built an immense volcanic plateau that straddles a high mountain divide—the Yellowstone Plateau volcanic field. This volcanic region has evolved through 3 cycles of voluminous outpourings of rhyolite lava and volcanic ash, each of them climaxing with one of Earth's greatest pyroclastic-floweruptions and the resulting collapse of a central area to form a large caldera. Other eruptions have poured out basalt lava flows around the margins of the volcanic field. 

Yellowstone's volcanism is only the most recent in a 17 million-year history of volcanic activity that has occurred progressively from southwestern Idaho to Yellowstone National Park. At least six other large volcanic centers along this path generated caldera-forming eruptions; the calderas are no longer visible because they are buried beneath younger basaltic lava flows and sediments that blanket the Snake River Plain.  
In the 1970s, a resurvey of benchmarks discovered the unprecedented uplift of the Yellowstone Caldera of more than 28 inches (72 cm) over five decades. More recently, new and revolutionary satellite-based methods for tracking the Earth's shifting ground motions have enabled University of Utah, US Geological Survey, and other scientists to assemble a more precise and detailed picture of Yellowstone's ground movements.

Reference: Wikipedia, volcanoes.usgs.gov

The Acropolis

Acropolis is Heritage Historic in Greece, This site, shaped building natural stronghold or citadel in ancient Greece. The Greeks built their towns in plains near or around a rocky hill that could easily be fortified and defended. The word acropolis referred both to the hill and to what was built on it. Almost every Greek city had its acropolis, which provided a place of refuge for townspeople during times of war. Sometimes the ruler of the town lived within the walls of this stronghold. In many cases the acropolis became the site of temples and public buildings and thus served as the town’s religious center and the focal point of its public life and as a place of refuge.
The best-known acropolis of the ancient world is the Acropolis of Athens. The ruins of its temples and their sculptures are widely regarded as the finest examples of ancient Greek art and architecture. Built on a limestone hill that rises about 150 m (about 500 ft) above sea level, the Acropolis dominates the city of Athens. It houses the remains of the Parthenon, a magnificent temple dedicated to the goddess Athena; the Propylaea, a monumental marble gateway and the main entrance to the Acropolis; the Erechtheum, a temple famous for the perfection of its details; and the Temple of Athena Nike.

I. HISTORY OF THE ATHENIAN ACROPOLIS

The fate of the buildings on the Acropolis reflects the history of Athens. As Christianity spread through the ancient world, some of the buildings on the Acropolis were converted to churches. The Parthenon, for example, became a church in ad 426 and was rededicated to the Virgin Mary and named Our Lady of Athens in 622. After Athens came under control of the Ottoman Empire in 1458, the Parthenon became a mosque, and the Acropolis later became a garrison. In 1687 Venetian general Francesco Morosini besieged and bombarded the Acropolis, causing great damage when a cannonball ignited gunpowder stored in the Parthenon.

In the early 1800s the British ambassador to the Ottoman sultan, Lord Elgin, obtained permission to “take away pieces of stones with inscriptions or figures.” He thereafter removed most of the decoration from the Parthenon, transported the pieces to Britain, and later sold them to the British Museum, where they are on display as the Elgin Marbles. Successive Greek governments have unsuccessfully sought the return of the Parthenon sculptures.

The Acropolis was gradually restored after Greece gained its independence from Ottoman rule in 1829. Early restoration efforts concentrated on removing all additions constructed after the classical period ended in 323 bc. In the 20th century air pollution and the thousands of annual visitors to the Acropolis also caused serious damage, and measures taken from the 1970s on have focused on protecting and preserving the buildings on the Acropolis. The Erechtheum’s caryatids, for example, were removed and replaced with marble casts of the originals. Visitors can view the original caryatids in the Acropolis Museum and the British Museum. A major reconstruction project began on the Acropolis in 1981 after the buildings suffered earthquake damage. Work on the Propylaea was completed by the 2004 Summer Olympic Games held in Athens, but the Parthenon remained partially hidden by scaffolding.

II. BUILDINGS ON THE ATHENIAN ACROPOLIS
The Athenian Acropolis has been occupied since Neolithic times, but archaeologists have found few remains of its early inhabitants. During the late Bronze Age (1450 to 1200 bc), a heavily fortified palace citadel was built on the hill, and a massive stone wall was built around it. Scholars know little about the Acropolis of Athens in the period from the late Bronze Age to the Archaic period (750 to 480 bc) because later building activities obscured the traces. The Acropolis probably remained a fortified citadel while also becoming a religious sanctuary. The first stone temple to Athena, the patron goddess and protector of the city, was built on the Acropolis at the beginning of the 6th century bc. It may have stood roughly where the Parthenon now stands. Simpler temples probably preceded it.

A Greek victory in the Battle of Marathon (490 bc) near Athens inspired the Athenians to undertake an ambitious program to build new temples in celebration of their defeat of the Persians (see Persian Wars). Construction of the first temple was underway when the Persians sacked Athens in 480 bc, plundering and burning the temples and monuments on the Acropolis. The Greeks finally defeated the Persians in 479 bc, but no building took place on the Acropolis for nearly 30 years. An enormous project to rebuild the Acropolis began about 450 bc under Pericles, the leading figure in Athenian politics of the 5th century bc. The masterpieces that resulted reflect Athens at the height of its power in the ancient world.

The Propylaea

The principal entrance to the Acropolis is a monumental gateway called the Propylaea, which is made of white marble. It is located at the western end of a walled enclosure near the top of the Acropolis, at the head of a steep, winding path. It was begun in 437 bc, but work on it stopped five years later, probably because of a threat of war. The Peloponnesian War, between Athens and an alliance led by Sparta, finally broke out in 431 bc. Sparta’s alliance defeated Athens, and the Propylaea was never completed.

The Propylaea was designed by Greek architect Mnesicles to have a central section with wide openings and two wings, one to the north and the other to the south. The facade of the central section consists of six widely spaced columns in the simple Doric order (style). Inside, two rows of columns in the more elegant Ionic order divide the central area into three sections through which visitors proceed. The north wing was to house a gallery of paintings, and the south wing was to provide a passageway to the Temple of Athena Nike. The wings were never completed.

Temple of Athena Nike

The small marble Temple of Athena Nike stands just outside the Propylaea, on a projecting ridge to the south and west. This temple is the first building visitors see as they make their way up the Acropolis. It was designed by the architect Callicrates, who also worked on the Parthenon, and was built in the 420s bc in the Ionic style. Four Ionic columns stand in a row at the front and the back of this temple, which measures only 8.2 by 5.4 m (27 by 18 ft). A carved frieze (continuous horizontal band) runs around the temple just below the roof. On the east side it depicts a conference of the gods and on the other sides battle scenes from Greek mythology. The goddess Athena was the patron and protector of the city of Athens; nike (pronounced nee-kay) is Greek for “victory.” The temple is thus dedicated to Athena as the bringer of victory.

The Parthenon


The Parthenon comes immediately into view after the visitor enters the Acropolis through the Propylaea. Also dedicated to Athena, this large temple built entirely of marble is considered the greatest masterpiece of Greek architecture for its harmonious proportions, its architectural refinements, and the elegant sculptures that decorated it. The temple was designed by Greek architects Ictinus and Callicrates and was constructed from 447 to 438 bc. It measures 31 by 70 m (102 by 230 ft).

The Parthenon was built in the simple and powerful Doric order, with 8 columns along each end and 17 columns along each side. Through careful adjustments to the design and location of the Parthenon’s columns and floor platform, the architects counteracted optical illusions that could have distorted the building’s appearance from a distance. Without such adjustments, the platform might seem to sag in the middle, for example, and the columns might appear to have a slight curve in profile. A central structure with two chambers once housed a statue of Athena made of ivory and gold that was perhaps 10 m (33 ft) tall.

Phidias, considered by many to have been the finest Greek sculptor, supervised the design and execution of the sculpture on the Parthenon, which was completed in 432 bc. Sculpture adorned the pediments (triangular elements) below the roof at each end, the metopes (square panels) beneath the pediments and on all four sides of the Parthenon, and the frieze around the interior chamber. Sculpture in the west pediment depicted Athena’s contest with the god Poseidon for rule over Athens; sculptures showing Athena’s birth, flanked by gods and goddesses, decorated the east pediment. Sculptures carved on the metopes depicted legendary battles fought by the Greeks. A procession in honor of Athena ran along the frieze. Little of the original Parthenon sculpture remains in place. Many of the surviving sculptures can be seen at the British Museum in London, England. An Acropolis Museum in Athens also houses sculpture and objects from the site.

The Erechtheum

Beyond the Parthenon and near the north wall of the Acropolis stands the Erechtheum, which takes its name from Erechtheus, a hero and, according to some mythological genealogies, a king of Athens. This temple was dedicated to several deities, including Athena and Poseidon, and housed the Athenians’ most sacred statue, a wooden image of Athena Polias (Athena, goddess of the city). The Erechtheum, like the Propylaea, was probably designed by Mnesicles. Construction of it began in the 430s or 420s bc and ended in 405 bc.

The Erechtheum is one of the most elaborate buildings on the Acropolis. Its plan is irregular, probably because of the sloping site and the need to preserve earlier places of worship on the site or nearby. Porches project from three sides of the Erechtheum, but they are at different heights and are not centered on each side. Graceful Ionic columns support the porches on the eastern and northern sides. Elegant caryatids (columns carved in the shape of draped female figures) support the Porch of the Maidens on the south side.

Thanks to Encarta Encyclopedia